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If the philosopher says that mental phenomena cannot be accounted for wholly in physiological terms, and that the behaviour of living organisms cannot be exhaustively described by laws of mechanics, he not only cannot be scientifically refuted, but he will find a number of scientific men to agree with him. And if he says that the whole evolutionary process cannot be attributed to chance, but points to the gradual realization of some gupreme purpose, he will still find scientific men willing to follow him—a little faint, perhaps, but pursuing.
The Times, London.
VI
DISSERTATION ON
A COMPENDIOUS REVIEW OF THE INFLUENCE
OF THE COSMIC SPIRIT ON THE UNIVERSE
{notes|elucidations and analyses}
The title is Fan Lun ###. The meaning of fan is a large expanse of water; overflowing water. Here it is used to describe a wide survey of history from the beginning of time, to discover the gains and losses, with the tao as the standard of measurement; and everything is referred to it as the unity.
An ancient king1 did not wear the crown and royal robes to govern the empire. He cherished the people and
Kingship lies in good government not in pomp. |
In ancient times, the people, living in humid plains, dug caves further and further into the earth. When the
Sages ameliorated hard social conditions. |
Pei Yu was the first tailor to fashion clothes. People twisted hemp with their fingers and made it by spinning into cloth of web and woof. Thus they had the wherewith to cover their persons and fight the cold. The ground was tilled, in primitive times, with sharp-pointed sticks and hoed with the bones of shell fish (clam). They cut grass with a wooden sickle and carried water in earthen vessels. The people worked hard, with only meagre gains. Later generations made ploughs and hoes and picks for mowing and hoeing; they drew water up in buckets, by means of a winch. The people were eased and got more profitable returns.
In ancient times, as great rivers and famous channels interrupted communication and prevented intercourse, they
Transport improved. |
Thus people, driven by necessity of their difficulties, sought means of relief. Forced by their trials, they devised means of alleviation. By empirical knowledge, every one sought means of relief from his necessitous circumstances. Finding out the economical, they gradually changed their implements to suit their requirements. The customary tool need not be followed, and implements of the past need not be conformed to. Thus the standards of former kings are changed.
We may instance the case of marriage. The ancient custom determined that the parties themselves should not
Not incumbent to follow convention. |
The rule in the selection of an heir was that the eldest be chosen; but Wen Wang passed by Pei I Kuo, the eldest, and designated Wu Wang. This was constitutionally irregular.
It was the custom that people should marry only on attaining the age of thirty, but Wen Wang begat Wu Wang when he was only fifteen. Such was against the law.
The House of Hsia placed the tablet of a deceased member to the east of the central steps; the House of Yin
Custom only temporary, |
Again, the house of Hsia offered their sacrifices in their houses at midnight (in the dark). The Yin people sacrificed in the Ancestral Hall in the twilight. The Chou people sacrificed from sunrise to evening, in the Audience Hall. This shows the existence of diversity in the practice of sacrifices.
Yao had the Ta Chang imperial music: Shun used the Chin Shao music, Yü the Ta Hsia, T‛ang the Ta Hu, Chou the Wu-Hsiang, These show that the music used by the different dynasties differed.
Thus we see that whilst there was a diversity in the practices of the Five Emperors,4 nevertheless their virtues equally embraced the whole empire. The Three Kings p. 146 used different methods; but the renown of each equally became a tradition.
Now all these changed their methods in unison with the times, and regulated their etiquette and music
and may be abrogated. |
Thus when the practices of the Ancient Kings appeared to be unsuitable to new times, they were abandoned; but when suitable to and compatible with the demands of still later times, they were revived and observed. These show that there have been no uniform standards of ceremonies and music, in the past. Sages regulated them according to the times. They were not bound by any.
There is only one fundamental and unvarying law in all rule, that is the good of the people. There is a constant
The good of the people |
The decay of Hsia and Shang came about through obstinate conservatism and refusal to change decaying methods. This resulted in the end of the dynasties. The p. 147
The unvarying law. |
Obstinate conservatism fatal. |
A hundred streams issue from different springs; but
Methods differ. The aim one. |
It was when the princely rule was failing, that poetry was created in the hope of reviving it. When the
Why the Odes were made |
But Tao is the vital matter. |
THE TAO THAT CAN BE EXPRESSED IN WORDS IS NOT THE ETERNAL TAO.
Duke Chou, in his service of Wen Wang, arrogated no arbitrary authority. He administered nothing on his
Duke of Chou |
When Wu Wang died, and Cheng Wang was still young, Duke Chou carried on the work of Wen Wang. He attended to the Census, transacted the affairs of administration, suppressed the disturbances of the I and Ti: he executed his two brothers, Kuan and Tsai.{7} He sat with his back to the screen and faced south;8 and gave audience to the Feudal Lords. He had no counsellor in administering rewards and punishments, in organizing and deciding.9 His authority was respected everywhere, and his renown filled the land. In this he may be said to be perfect as a great statesman.
After Ch‛eng Wang had grown to manhood, the Duke handed back to him the insignia of empire and once more took the position of facing north, offering the homage and service of a minister. He acted only after consultation and did the business of his office after receiving the imperial reply. He showed no trace of an ambitious will nor any shade of boastfulness of his merits. Thus he may be said to be a perfect minister.
Thus we see, in the person of one man, that, in order to sustain the duties of the several times, he had to make three changes. How much more necessary is a change incumbent on a prince who experiences many changes or on p. 149 a country which has a succession of kings! Man, according to his position, follows his taste and predilections and relies on his power to satisfy what his desires command. But it is plain that the application of one uniform principle or fixed rule to the demands of every different time and the appreciation of the mating of them to every issue, will never result in a proper equilibrium.
Therefore, the sage's spring of action is called the Tao. His deeds are called affairs (Shih). The Tao is like a bell
The Tao is unchangeable. |
Methods vary. |
In ancient times, men were simple and sincere; work was real; commerce was honest, and woman was virtuous and faithful. Under such conditions it was an easy matter for government and education to convert people and correct
Laws must suit the times |
Of old, Shen Nung10 never issued laws; nevertheless the people followed him. T‛ang and Yü had a system of laws without punishments. The House of Chow governed by faithfulness: they never broke their word. The House of Yin demanded an oath from the people. The House of Chou went further and entered into covenant by blood.9a When we come to consider the present age, when the people think lightly of the shame of castigation and punishment, and do not consider a lustful disposition degrading, any attempt to apply the way of Shen Nung in government would lead to inevitable anarchy.
Pei Ch‛eng Tzŭ Kao refused the position of a feudal lord and continued to till his land. This renunciation won universal admiration. But should a man now refuse office and go into retirement, he would be looked an as the lowest in the district. He could never have the same standing as was awarded to such independence of mind, in olden times.
In olden times, the soldier was simply armed with bow and sword. Their pikes had no points, their long lances no barbs. But soldiers of a later age must be equipped with battering rams for attack; the defenders must have shields to stop the arrows. The bow became a multiple one and it was needful to have a cow drag the carriage into battle.11
In olden times it was not the custom to slay youths in taking a kingdom nor to make captives of men whose temples were getting grey. What was counted good in ancient times is now laughed at. What was looked on as glory in the past is now regarded as a shame. The art of ruling as carried on by the ancients is now considered anarchical and out of date.
Though Shen Nung and Fu Hsi dispensed no rewards and punishments people did no wrong. Nevertheless, legislators cannot (now), in imitation of them, do without law and succeed in governing men. Shun used the lancers p. 151 and dances and the rebellious aborigines became willing subjects. Notwithstanding, pacificators cannot hang up their instruments and do without soldiers and arms in governing a violent people.
From these considerations it is evident that the nature of legislation must be determined, as to its means and use,
Times and needs must determine nature of legislation. |
Yin altered the regime of Hsia; Chou altered that of Yin; and the dynasties of the Annals changed the customs of Chou. Since the ceremonies of the Three Dynasties were dissimilar, what need is there for us to follow and conform to antiquity?
A fundamental principle is that the leaders should create, and associates should follow. They who know the sources from which law and government spring, will change their methods in response to the times. They who have no apprehension of the fountain-head of law and the art of ruling, can never maintain tranquility, even though they follow ancient ways.
Legislation should change with the times; ceremonies and etiquette should alter with new ideas. Students who
Die-hards. A square peg in a round hole. |
At present the Confucianist and Meist extol the Three Dynasties, the Wen and Wu systems,12 but do not act up
Superficial Reforms. |
Now it is not possible without knowledge to meet critical situations. People of even limited intelligence can well enough praise the merits of the ancients. Words alone are a simple matter. The sages, however, refuse to bring into being laws that cannot be put into practice. Good kings will not listen to advice that cannot be verified in practice. There is nothing greater in the fluid of Nature than the creative harmony. When this creative spirit operates, Yin and Yang work, day and night are distinguished, and creation moves into birth; seed sown in spring matures in autumn. Both in birth and fruition p. 153
Nature of the rule of the Tao-Sage. |
Too much sternness will defeat its own ends by
He finds the equilibrium. |
An accumulation of the Yin fluid will result in depression; an accumulation of the Yang fluid will lead to overbuoyancy. When the Yin and Yang fluids combine, the happy medium is found resulting in creative harmony.
A line used for measuring can be both rolled up and stretched out. Drawn out and expanded, it is straight and a measurement taken by it. It is in some similar way that the sage uses his body.
Now a rope has length without breadth. Though short, it is interminable, i.e., it can be used successively in measurement. It is straight and yet not stiff. Its results are
and harmony |
In olden times, Duke Chi Chien lost control of his kingdom, by committing the whole power to his great
Ruler must not be too indulgent. |
People do not understand the power of the Tao, so
But must have a dominating conduct. |
Take an illustration. A person who does not know the music of a gong, will sing too low in the bass and fail to recover; the tenor will get too high and screech and lose the harmony. As a contrast, the lyric singing of Han Nyo, Tsing Ch‛ing, Hsieh T‛an, the ballads of Hou Tung and Yen Sheng came hot from the soul of these singers and welled up from their inspired feelings, with a richness of voice, so that every note was correct and harmonized with the listener's mind. The secret was that they had a mastery of their music which gave them control over the
And exercise control. |
The orchestra, drum and dance are the instruments of music; obeisances and bowing are the practices for cultivating etiquette. Generous expenditure in funerals and protracted mourning in the obsequies of the dead, were established by Confucius. But these proprieties were condemned by Mei Tzŭ. Universal love, altruism, respect for the saints, adoration of the spirits, disbelief in destiny, were the creations of Mei Tzû; but these practices and ideas were condemned by Yang. The preservation of one's nature, the maintenance of reality and refusal to let circumstances entangle one's person, were the creations of Yang; but they were criticised by Mencius. Thus, each man has
Each faculty in life must be used in the right sphere. |
In the age of Ts‛in16 (the fashion was) to build lofty belvederes and grand-stands, to lay out extensive gardens
Militarism is costly in lives an suffering. |
The militarists of the present time despise the civilians. The pacificists (civil) condemn the militarists. There are mutual recriminations. Both fail to appreciate the different needs of alternating times and the necessity for the application of divers methods, each suitable to its time. Each faction looks at the matter from a one-sided point of view. So one party, looking only to the eastern side, does not see the west window; looking at the north he does not see the south. Thus, as there is no comprehensive view, there
Morality essential to national well-being |
Rise and fall of Nations |
Consider; when Hsia20 was about to fall, Chung Ku, the Prime Minister, anticipating the disaster, fled beforehand to Shang; just three years afterwards, Chieh, the emperor, perished. When Yin was about to be overthrown, Huang and I, ministers, went over to Wen Wang, just a year before the death of Chou. We thus see that the sages, in their discernment of the symptoms of rise and fall, and the crises of success and failure, have no need to wait for the actual days of Ming T‛ao and Yeh Chia.21
Now, people seeing that success comes to the strong, measure their land and count their numbers. Thinking that
Not by power nor might. |
Reign of Law essential. |
Therefore, we find this great principle, that princes of anarchical countries who strive to extend their territory,
Humanity and Justice. |
Avengers of might. |
This is the guiding law. If the principles of a government by right are not acted on, but rather the selfish policy of personal gain is followed, which ends in seizure of territory, then such a course leads directly to ruin.
When Wu Wang overthrew Yin, some of his people wished to build a fortress on the Wu Hsing mountain.
Forts cannot preserve a nation. |
There is an old saying of a Chou book: "The words of the authorities are put in practice by the subjects. The words of the subjects are put into use by the authorities. They thus mutually help in carrying on the country."
The words of the authorities are the prince's law, the words of the people are a guide to meet the needs of the country and carry on administration satisfactorily. These are the ways to success, of expediency and failure. The p. 161 sages, alone, know what is expedient; others look on a literal faithfulness in words, or a strict adherence to time
Minor sins permissible to shield great principles. |
It is generally held a great fault for the soldier to go beyond his command. When the Duke Mu moved his soldiers to make a surprise attack on the Cheng country, he had to pass Chou, on his march eastward. Hsü An-kao, a merchant of Cheng, travelling west with cattle to the markets, met the Ts‛in commander on the confines of Chou and Cheng. He feigned to have an order from the Baron of Cheng. And so he told the Commander that he was
A deception justified |
We may, then, judge that the sage considers the circumstances and suits his methods to the end in view; he
The Sage guided by times and seasons. |
Intercourse, according to the rules of propriety, demand that the minister should bend the knee and bow the head in reverence and respect. But in an exiguous crisis, no one would affirm that the lifting of the foot to kick the person of the prince would be wrong. Therefore, if etiquette should he wanting at times, it arises from the exigency of the occasion. Filial service demands a pleasant countenance, a humble demeanour and an orderly deportment from the son, when he stoops to tie the gaiter
The right of impiety. |
"Those who study together may not equally find the way. There may even be a common agreement on theories, but it does not follow that all will be established in the way. Even though there be a common practice, it may be that all will not concur in a matter of p. 163 expediency."
Analects BK IX. Chap. 29.
The Sage, alone, is able to see the way of expediency. Therefore, what appears, at first, incompatible, later on
The Sage avoids varnish and seeks reality. |
The ape has a cognizance of the past, but none of the future. The Eastern magpie26 knows the future, but not the past. This is a differentiation in merits and shortcomings.
Formerly Chang Hung was the astrologer of the house of Chou. There were neither laws of climatic conditions nor of changes in weather, with which he was not conversant; nevertheless he was not able to foresee his own death through a carriage accident. Su Ch‛in was a common man who generally rode shanks's pony. But he rose to travel in a stylish carriage and be the adviser of great kings.
Mere capacity not enough. |
All these persons were versed in the essentials of government and in the means of self-preservation. Chang Hung was proficient in astrology but not in human affairs. Su Ts‛in knew the art of weighing the merit of plans and schemes, but did not know what constituted misfortune and happiness. Hsü Yen Wang was a proficient protagonist in the exercises of love and mercy, but not in the signs of the times. Ta Fu Chung knew how to be loyal, but not how to plan for his own person.
The sages did not so act. They weighed every matter in all their deliberations of world conditions and acted
Sages careful in planning. |
Let us suppose the empire in anarchy, law and order being suspended, the principles of government abandoned, the strong and weak in mutual conflict, everyone striving to gain power, the distinction of prince and minister lost, the differentiation of classes extinct, the military verminous from constant service, the swallows building their nests in the camps, and the soldier with never a respite from service: only when the country had come to these straits, did the people realize the gravity of affairs and feel a sense of responsibility: but it was too late to revive the country. Disaster was inevitable.
Suppose the country at rest, the government in concord, the people in comfort and peace, high and low in mutual harmony, and then those persons who only think of getting into the public service, come out with zeal and energy to serve their country, when all is calm. They would inevitably be the subject of public castigation.
Now both those who realized the sense of danger too p. 165 tardily, and those who come out into public service only during an era of peace, are useless. On the contrary, the action of the sage is very different. Only such as he can accommodate himself to obscurity and publicity; he, alone, can be pliant or obdurate; he, alone, can be active or quiet, according to the times. He will act according to the circumstance. He will apprehend what direction forces will take. He will study the fluctuations of affairs in their beginnings, act compatibly with their transformations and respond to them as they shift. Therefore, he will have no
and in weighing events. |
Minor faults no bar to service. |
Formerly, Ts‛ao Tzŭ, a general of Luh, was thrice defeated in battle and lost 1,000 li of land. Ts‛ao Tzŭ never looked back or retraced his steps, but went forward, ready, if need be, to die in battle, and thought the worst that could happen would be no more than a reputation of a loser of battles and a captured general. Notwithstanding, Ts‛ao Tzŭ was not mortified by his defeats but rather felt ashamed of dying without achieving his purpose; so, during the treaty at Kô, he drew out his dagger and, clutching the coat of Huan Kung, threatened to kill him. He thus won back in a day what he had lost in three defeats. The renown of his valour spread over the empire and his deeds were enshrined in the Luh nation.
Kuan Chung27 attempted to rescue his King, Baron Chin, but he cannot be praised for intelligence, for he fled and escaped and had no share in the tragic death of his King (as a minister should). For this he cannot be called valorous. Bound and handcuffed and yet unashamed of his chains, he cannot be said to be faithful. For these unmeritorious acts, an ordinary man would not claim his friendship nor would a prince ever make a minister of him! Nevertheless, freed from the shackles of bondage after becoming the leading minister in Ch‛i, he united the 9 Feudal states into one empire. Had he rushed to death and lost his life, without regard to later plans for the empire, he would never have accomplished the work of unifying the empire under one dominant power.
As things are now, princes do not weigh the supreme merit of their ministers, nor regard their preeminent abilities, as a whole, but rather select them for some small personal p. 167
Small defects must not stand in the way of service. |
No nature is wholly free from some shortcoming. It is enough to weigh the general purpose of the life. A trifling shortcoming must not be allowed to entangle the whole person. Of course, if a person fails to have any great scheme or purpose in life, then he is useless for great office, even though he may be well-spoken-of in his village.
Yen Hsin Chu of Liang Fu was a bandit, but rose to be a loyal minister of Ch‛i. Tuan Kan Mu was a
Character considered as a whole. |
Chi Huang, Ch‛en Chung Tzŭ were worthy men and independent in action. They refused to enter the
Too idealistic standards. |
Moral indiscretions not a bar. |
Moral culture not easy. |
Pei Li Hsi was a cattle-broker, Yi Yin a cook, T‛ai Kung was a butcher, Ning Ch‛i a ballad singer. But subsequently their merits as ministers are not forgotten. Before they rose to power, the multitude only saw the
Discernment in choosing men. |
To be advanced from the kitchen, to emerge from the butchery, to be raised, after deliverance from the prisoner's shackles, to be exalted from a broker's position, for such, I say, to be bathed in the bath of nectar and purified by the heating streams of the sun, exalted to high positions in the Court and seated in high office of State, on the right hand of the Three Dukes, for them to stand unabashed in the Palace of the Kingdom and feel pride of dignity abroad amongst the Barons, with powers matching those of princes,—all this shows that it required the penetration of Yao to discern their merits, whilst they were as yet undistinguished. This is the way Yao knew Shun. The populace only became cognizant of his merits after he had completed his great work and established his reputation.
Such, only, is the popular knowledge of Shun. Were anyone to rely merely on his own eyes and intelligence,
Given only to a few. |
Now, as a rule, all things have a great similarity. There is outwardly but little difference between one man and another. And mediocre princes and governors of the world may be deceived easily by appearances. A white bone much resembles ivory; most men fail to distinguish the one from the other. So with men. The specious kind appears to have goodness, but it is not really so. The bravado kind has not really got courage. Now, did men really appear as distinct in character as a jade does from stone, or beauty from ugliness, it would be easy to judge them. There are four varieties of plants very much alike and hard to be distinguished, so that people often mistake them. Similarly the sword-maker may err in thinking a Sword is like (the famous) Mo Hsieh sword. Only the expert, O Yen, could give an authoritative opinion. The diamond-cutter may
Easy to err in judgement. |
Confucius, by refusing the magistracy of Ling Ch‛in, showed that he was free from the love of empty gain. By the refusal of Imperial power, Hsü Yu manifested, by this one act, the purity of his life. Similarly, it might be said p. 171 that he who has not been burnt will not grasp fire, since
Taste and act show character. |
The ancient method of rewards was good, involving but little expenditure of money, yet resulting in wide-spread
Value of rewards and punishments. |
Examples of such may be given from history. Chao Hsiang Tzŭ, after the raising of the investment of Tsin Yang, bestowed the chief reward on Wu Jen Kao Hê. Others criticised this, alleging that the man did but little to save the situation when they were besieged in Tsin Yang. So the King explained his action by saying, "When I was besieged and my house and country were in critical danger, all my ministers were disrespectful to me in my plight: Wu, alone, preserved still the proper courtesies between prince and minister in this time of humiliaton." This act p. 172 had great influence in the whole empire by inspiring the feeling of loyalty. None there was, but showed respect to his King after this example. This, then, is an illustration of the saying, 'All were inspired by an exemplary reward.'
Again, Wei Kung of Ch‛i prepared a cauldron of boiling oil in the central area of his court, and addressing the officer of Wu Yen, said, "The report of your fine reputation reached my ears daily, but when I came to examine the facts, I found that your district was a waste, your granaries empty and prisons full. It was by wickedness that you served me." He was, thereupon, thrust into the cauldron. After this exemplary punishment, for the next 32 years, articles dropped on the road and lost were quite safe. This is an example of the saying, "By an exemplary punishment crime is stopped."
Once an expediticn lost a favourite horse which kicked the traces and ran away. It was captured by some rustics
Art of conciliation. |
Further, Huan Kung of Ch‛i, purposing a military expedition, was short of equipment for his troops. So he issued a notice that great criminals should be pardoned, if they supplied him with the materials for making cuirasses: criminals should be redeemed by a gift of metal, the quantity to be determined by the gravity of the guilt. Unsuccessful litigants were to be consoled, if they gave a gift of arrows. The people thought well of the plan and worked to make p. 173 arrows from poles; metal was melted into swords. Thus, the lawless were subdued, and the unruly corrected. In this way he became the dominant lord of the empire. This illustrates the saying, "They contributed much without grumbling."
The sage, then, will influence the people by that which commands their goodwill and restrain evil-doors by following what the people detest. So that, by the exemplary reward of one man, the King wins popular applause; by an exemplary punishment of one man, all the people are filled with fear. Thus the perfect way of rewards demands no lavish expenditure. The most perfect form of punishment does not need that many suffer. Confucius slew Shao Cheng and stopped crime in Luh. By putting Teng Hsi to death, Tzû Ch‛an closed up the ways of criminals in Chêng. Thus the distant regions are warned by an intimate act, and the big known from the little. Similarly the Sage, by a few acts, is able to reach and rule the wide stretches of empire.
There is nothing in the world easier than goodness and nothing more difficult than depravity. By "goodness" is
Easy to be good. |
Not easy to be bad. |
The reason that men commit criminal acts and endanger their lives springs from unsatiated appetites which are uncontrolled by proper restraints. How may this be proved? p. 174 The promulgated laws of the Empire state: "The removers of graves shall be decapitated; thieves and bandits shall be punished." These are under the administration of the authorities. The law commands that the police should always be on the track of criminals and catch them. Now if an ignorant man or stupid woman knows well there is no escape for criminals, transgressors of the law cannot hope to evade the penalty. Nevertheless the good-for-nothing people who cannot control their lusts, brave the penalty of death, and incur the obloquy of punishment. In spite of this terrifying result, the executioners lead an endless train of guilty persons to execution after the autumn assize, and the blood of the culprits who die deluges the streets. It is the lust for gain that brings people to this tragic end.
Armies in battle, ready for action, one facing the other, are addressed by their respective generals in such words as, "Whoever slays an enemy shall be loaded with honours; the craven shall be decapitated." Notwithstanding this, the front line of soldiers, being incapable of advancing and of winning the promised laurels of a victor, came under the sentence of decapitation. The very act of fleeing, through fear of death, brought on them the certainty of death as a punishment. Hence the gain, on one side, becomes a loss, and vice versa. Thus the intimate connection of infelicity should not be neglected. So that in the desire of gaining a certain end, the good is missed. As an example take the instance in Tzŭ, where some passengers travelling by boat met with a big wind, which swept the waves over the boat. The passengers, in their fright, jumped into the water. They wished to live and feared death; but the attempt to escape it, in one form, brought it on them, in another form. Men governed by the appetites are just like these. A Ch‛i individual stole some money at a crowded bazaar. He was walking away with it when the police asked him why it was that he stole the money in the market. The thief replied that the sight of the money filled his p. 175 mind to the exclusion of the policeman. So his desires made him forgetful of the nature of his act.
The Sage, therefore, watches the fluctuations of the emotions; he weighs the measures of repugnance and
The psychology of crime. |
Be ruled by reason. |
Men's hearts are very similar to the things just instanced. They should be governed as to their needs, by the due measure of their wants. Just enough food to satisfy one's hunger and enough clothes to protect the body against the cold should suffice for a form of six feet. Where there is no rule or measure to govern one's thrift, it would be found that the highest position in the land would be insufficient to give satisfaction, and the wealth of the empire inadequate to give enjoyment to such a person. Sun Hsü Ao thrice declined the premiership without any regrets. The seductive attractions of position and emoluments could not entangle him. Chung Tzû Fei stood unmoved when the two dragons clutched his boat, the monsters failed to frighten him. When the heart of the sage is at ease and his mind firm, and when his spirit rules within, nothing can raise doubts and fears.
A drunken man stoops in entering a city gate as though it were a small door in his house; he enters the p. 176 deep waters of rivers as though they were but the little streams in the valley, because his spirit is besotted by wine. The timid, seeing a pillar in the night, thinks it a ghost; he imagines a stone lying prone to be a tiger. Fear has robbed him of his spirit. There are no such things as ghosts and goblins.
When male and female are mated and the Yin and Yang crossed, the feathered tribes appear as fowls and such like; and the hairy tribe as foals and colts. The soft element became skin and flesh, the hard element teeth and horns. But as they are common sights, they are not objects of strange curiosity. The water breeds dragons and sea serpents, mountains grow metal and jade, and these no one looks on as objects of wonder.
An old cypress takes fire by spontaneous combustion; old corpses become phosphorescent; yet people do not think these things strange. The Hsiao Yang30 stalks the mountains. The undines (Yin Hsiang) are begotten by the waters. The trees give birth to the Pi Fang, fabulous bird, (Hamadryad) (Satyr). The well begets the Fen Yang Rain naiad. That people should think these strange comes from their rarity and the mind's superficial acquaintance with things. The sage, alone, knows these fantastic things; people of understanding, alone, comprehend the use of them. The strange and unnatural create doubt in the minds of the generality of men. Those things which are not understood, and on which the people are not informed, are taken as spiritual manifestations and are used as means to warn and restrain the people. All these appearances are used as parabolic teaching. Popular
Use of myths |
It is impossible to record all similar folk-lore found in books and script, and store them up in the archives for public instruction; therefore, the ignorant are instructed by p. 178 means of these mythological sayings, and are being instructed in those things of whose harm they are ignorant, by such inculcation, and by the dread of demons of which use is made. This folklore is of great antiquity. The uninitiated, therefore, look upon ghosts and demons as being inauspicious, or auspicious, as the case may be, and fear them accordingly. The bold do not believe in them, and those of understanding know the real significance of these superstitions.
It must not be thought that the spirits can eat the sacrifices offered by the people to the well, kitchen, door, window, basket, brook, mortar, pestle, and so on; but the sacrifices offered to them are a display of the gratitude of people to the spirits for their boundless kindness and trouble. Hence, whenever there is an act of worship for kindness, it is an occasion for remembering their meritorious service.
T‛ai Shan is the only mountain that can give rise to the stone round which the flock of clouds collect which, uniting into one whole cumulus, will disperse in rain, in a short time. The streams and rivers are the only channels that run unceasingly, even when the land is parched by a three years drought, fertilizing the land and enriching every
Why sacrifice? |
Why demon worship? |
Once upon a time there was a man in North Ts‛u, who had the reputation of being a pugilist and helping the oppressed with his fists. His children often exhorted him not to do so and to give up his gymnastic cult, but without avail. A local thief broke into his dwelling one night and, in this way, his gymnastic exercises came to be known to the officials. The pugilist was frightened and fled. He was pursued and captured; but those people whom he had helped, in the past, came to his rescue and fought for him. Thus escaping, he returned and spoke to his children, saying "You have often advised me to desist from my exercises, but I have saved the family this evening by my arts. So that such advice as you gave was useless." This man knew how to deliver himself from trouble, but not how to keep himself from trouble. His wisdom may truly be doubted.
A man of Sung, about to give his daughter in marriage, said to her: "I fear this marriage cannot be consummated, unless you can make a little money yourself. It would be easy to marry you, could you get a little wealth." The girl understood what her father hinted at and purloined the private goods of her grandfather. When the grandfather knew of the theft, he drove the girl from home. The father did not blame himself for this, but rather prided himself on the success of his scheme. He knew how to get some stolen money, but failed to apprehend that this stolen money would lead to making the girl an out-cast. Such reasoning as the father's arouses our ire.
A man who overloaded a hired conveyance so that no ox could draw it, fearing lest the axle would break, thought it well to strengthen the shafts, without realizing that the added bit of material would more swiftly cause the axle to break.
The King of Ts‛u, when he went to hunt the hare, provided himself with two jade ornaments on his girdle, in case one should break in the chase; but the very fact of two being in juxtaposition, one knocking against the other, made it all the more easy for them both to be broken.
The government of a disturbed nation is very similar to the experiences recorded in these examples.
The eyes of the owl are big, but not of such keen vision as those of rats. A centipede has many feet, but is not so quick as a snake, in its motion. Thus we may see that the big is unequal to the little and the many unequal to the few. Even the strong may be weak and the weak strong; the man of the weak constitution is he who suddenly dies. Who but the sage can discern the true merits of the great and little, the lordly and the lowly? These cannot be decided by appearances. Wherever the Tao exists, there will be honour. An illustration will make this plain. When the emperor abides in the Chiao pavilion, the officers of state hasten with him, the ministers walk alongside, those who sit bend their heads, those who stand do so reverently. At this very time in the Ming T‛ang and the T‛ai Miao,33 hats are hung, swords are unstrapped, girdles are unloosed and sleepers lie about. And this not because the Chiao pavilion is big and the others small, but the presence of the emperor makes the difference and gives the dignity. Now the honour conferred by the Heavenly Doctrine is even greater than that conferred by the presence of the King. Wherever it is, all creation looks up to it with reverence. Hibernating insects, the jays in their nests, all turn their faces towards this one divine unity, the centre of perfect creative harmony. If the King could verily maintain the endowments of the Tao, in perfect harmony, then birds and beasts, plants and trees would all, without exception, share in the divine enrichment. How much more would man so share!